NRLF
The Gift of Beatrix Farrand
to the General Library
University of Calif ornia}Berkeley
I
Ex
Libris
BEATRIX
JONES
LANDSCAPE
A TREATISE
ON
PRUNING FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL TREES.
..." If the forests should disappear, civilization would become
extinguished on the earth. . . .
" It is the duty of an enlightened community to plant trees, and
to so care for them that posterity shall not suffer, — a duty unfortu-
nately too little regarded in our day." — DECAISNE.
PUBLICATIONS
OF THE
&ocietg for tfje promotion of Agriculture.
A TREATISE
ON
PRUIIXG FOREST AID ORIAMEKTAL TREES
BY A.iJDES CARS.
TRANSLATED FROM THE SEVENTH FRENCH EDITION.
it{j an Introduction
BY CHARLES S. SARGENT,
PROFESSOR OF ARBORICULTURE IN HARVARD COLLEGE.
FOURTH EDITION.
BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1900.
Copyright, 1881,
BY CHARLES S. SARGENT.
UNIVERSITY PRESS :
JOHN WILSON AND SON, CAMBRIDGE.
Add to Lib.
LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTURE
Land-
scae
INTRODUCTION
AMERICAN EDITION.
THE Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the
Promotion of Agriculture have intrusted me with the
preparation of an American edition of the Count des
Cars' treatise on Pruning Forest Trees.
No comprehensive work on this subject has appeared
before in the English language. This, perhaps, is not
remarkable. In Great Britain the earlier plantations,
largely inspired by the works of Evelyn, were made
with the view of ornamenting private parks, and the
question of increasing the individual capacity of trees
to produce timber by any system of pruning was
hardly considered. The economic plantations of later
years, made in Scotland and afterwards in England,
have been generally composed of coniferous species,
which, when properly planted, largely prune them-
selves. In America we have been too busy devising
methods for cutting down our forests to give serious
consideration to other branches of forest economy ;
and the American people have yet to show whether
they can ever replace the magnificent tree-covering
815
Vl TREE PRUNING.
their ancestors found on this continent, and which
they are now too rapidly and surely destroying.
The advantage of pruning forest trees, in order to
increase their yield of timber, was recognized in Ger-
many as early as the beginning of the seventeenth
century. At first warmly advocated, the practice
seems to have been soon very generally abandoned ;
and it was not until the writings of de Courval and
des Cars, recommending a scientific system based on
fundamental laws of vegetable physiology, again
called public attention to the importance of the
subject, that systematic pruning became a regular
operation in all Continental forests.1
Their system is based on the fact that, as wood is
alone formed by descending, elaborated sap, a wound
1 The following are the most important works which have been
published on this subject : —
Grundsdtze der Forst-GEconomie. Moser. 1775.
Anleitung zur sicheren Erzielung der heimischen und fremden Holzarten.
Burgsdorf. 1785.
Lehrbuchfur Forster. Hartig. 1811.
Behandlung und Schatzung des Mittelwaldes. Pfeil. 1830.
Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Chap. XIII. Lindley. 1855.
Taille et Conduits des Arbres Forestiers. De Courval. 1861.
L'Elagage des Arbres. Des Cars. 1864.
Anleitung zum nationellen Betrieb der Ausdstung. Von Muhlen. 1873.
For stliches Halfsbuch fur Schule und Praxis. Pressler. 1872.
Schneiden und Ausdsten. Tramnitz. 1873.
Sdmen und Pflanzen. Burckhard. 1874.
Das Ausdsten der Waldbdume. Vitus Ratzka. 1874.
Ueber die Folgen ausseren Verletzungen der Bdume. Goeppert. 1874.
Notice sur I'Elagage des Arbres, by Martinet. Published by the Admin-
istration of the French Forests in connection with the national
exhibition of forest products at the Paris Exposition of 1878, — a
valuable paper to which I am indebted for much information.
INTRODUCTION. vn
made on a tree can only be recovered with healthy,
new wood, when its entire circumference is brought
into direct communication with the leaves by means
of the layer of young and growing cells formed be-
tween the wood and the bark. To make this connec-
tion it is necessary to prune in such a manner that no
portion of an amputated or dead branch shall be left
on the trunk. The cut should always be made close
to and perfectly even with the outline of the trunk
without regard to the size of the wound thus made.
This is the essential rule in all pruning, and on its
observance the success of the operation depends.
It is not probable that the practice of pruning forest
trees will be generally adopted in the United States
until the further destruction of our forests has carried
the cost of forest products to a point where it will
be profitable to plant and rear in this country new
forests according to scientific methods. That time
cannot be far distant ; and already many of our
special industries dependent on certain hard woods
feel the want of better and more abundant material.
Some attention, especially in the Prairie States, has
of late years been given to tree-planting, and large
and successful plantations already exist in many parts
of the country. The value of such plantations can
be greatly increased by the early adoption of a scien-
tific system of pruning, which, if applied also to the
valuable hard-wood trees scattered over the more
thickly populated portions of the country, could not fail
to largely increase their productive capacity.
vm TREE PRUNING.
The climate of the United States renders it de-
sirable that our highways should be bordered with
trees.1 They are necessary to protect the traveller
from the cold winds of winter and the excessive heat
of the summer sun. This necessity is recognized ;
and city and roadside trees are everywhere planted.
Such plantations, however, too often suffer from total
neglect, or from injurious systems of pruning, which
shorten rather than prolong the lives of trees, and
diminish their usefulness and beauty.
Des Cars' method of pruning might well be adopted
by all persons in charge of highway plantations ; and
the advantage of such a system being thus demon-
strated, its general application to purely economic
plantations, and to the timber trees scattered over
the country, will naturally follow.
C. S. SARGENT.
BROOKLINE, 1881.
1 The importance of following in all street and roadside planting
the rule which requires that every connected street must be planted
with a single variety of tree should be insisted on. This plan is
universally adopted in Europe, and its advantages over that which
mixes various trees widely differing in habit, rapidity of growth, and
longevity in the same street plantation, are very great. This will be
seen by comparing the effect produced by the rows of Elms on the
Mall in Central Park, or by the magnificent avenues of Live-oaks near
Savannah, and on Cumberland Island, Georgia, with the mixed plan-
tations too often seen in this country, and in which alternating Elms
and Maples form a favorite combination.
PREFACE TO THE FRENCH EDITION.
I HAVE no claim to originality in this work, and
my only object in its publication is to popularize
de Courval's method of pruning, in order that all
owners of rural property may increase the value of
their trees in a simple, sure, and inexpensive manner,
through a system of rational priming.
M. de Courval first laid down the principles on
which the system I recommend is based ; and this
little treatise is by no means intended to take the
place of his larger work, which I cordially recom-
mend to every one interested in forest management.
I acknowledge the priority of M. de Courval's
publication, and consider it an honor to follow in
his footsteps ; although I am alone responsible for
the system I recommend, which has, moreover, been
reached through my own investigations and experi-
ments.
The illustrations scattered through the text have
been drawn from nature and have one merit, — that
of correctness.
A. DES CARS.
PROFESSOR J. DECAISNE, Member of the Institute, Director of the
Gardens of the Museum, of Natural History, Paris.
MY DEAR SIR, — In your learned and brilliant address
delivered at the Museum the thirtieth of April last, you
sanctioned the method of pruning practised with perfect
success for more than forty years by M. de Courval in the
forests of his vast estate of Pinon (Aisue).
M. de Courval has detailed his methods in a work1 of great
interest and value, but too technical, and too expensive per-
haps, for general use. Having been long occupied in the
study of this important subject, I prepared, several years ago,
a purely practical treatise on pruning, almost identical in its
conclusions with the more elaborate work of M. de Courval,
although entirely based on my own observations and experi-
ments.
Your encouragement and the desire of M. de Courval have
decided me to publish, almost in its original form, this treatise.
It has been used by a few practical foresters, a class for which
it is intended, although containing certain general considera-
tions to which I desire to call the attention of all interested
in sylviculture.
The authority which you give me to place your name on
this page is the best guarantee I can offer to the public that
the system my humble production explains is based on true
scientific principles ; and your name will contribute more than
any other to the success of my efforts to preserve and develop
an important and neglected source of the national wealth.
A. DES CARS.
PARIS, June, 1864.
1 Taille et conduite des arbres forestiers et autres arbres de grande
dimension, ou Nouvelle me'thode de traitement des arbres a haute tige, etc.
Paris, 1861.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PA6E
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 5
Formation of Wood 9
Disadvantages of the Common System of Pruning .... 11
Advantage of increasing the Number of Reserve Trees . . 15
CHAPTER II
GOOD PRUNING. — ITS AIMS AND METHODS. — DIVISION BY
AGE OF RESERVE TREES INTO FOUR CLASSES .... 17
Aim and Method of Pruning 17
Classification of Forest Trees according to Age 19
CHAPTER III.
APPLICATION OF THE SYSTEM 22
Tools used in Pruning 22
Ladders 23
Hooks or Spurs 24
The Dendroscope 25
Selection of the Leader 27
Shortening Main Branches 28
Sap Lifters 29
Double or Forking Branches 31
The Amputation of Large Branches 34
Use of Coal-tar in Dressing Wounds 36
xil TREE PRUNING.
CHAPTER IV.
PAGE
METHOD OF PRUNING KESERVE TREES OF DIFFERENT AGES . 38
Young Trees 38
Middle-aged Trees 43
Old Trees 44
Veterans 46
CHAPTER V.
THE TREATMENT OF OLD WOUNDS. — CAVITIES IN THE TRUNK.
— THE REMOVAL OF SHOOTS 51
Loosened Bark 52
Cavities in the Trunk 52
Removal of Shoots , .54
CHAPTER VI.
SEASON FOR PRUNING. — THE USE OF COAL-TAR 57
Season for Pruning 57
The Use of Coal-tar 58
Objections to other Preparations . 58
Effects of Coal-tar on the Elm 59
Employment of Coal-tar in Protecting Young Plantations
against Animals . 60
Employment of Coal-tar on Fruit Trees 60
CHAPTER VII.
SOFT WOODS. — POPLARS. — CONIFERS 62
SoftWoods 62
Poplars 62
Conifers . .... 63
ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
FIG. 1. Badly pruned Beech 7
" 2. Young unpruned Oak 8
" 3. Trunk of an Oak ruined by the decay of its lower
branches 9
" 4. Decay caused by the breaking of a large branch ... 10
" 5. Formation of wood by the descending sap 11
" 6. Effect of bad pruning 12
" 7. Section of a trunk showing the effects of good and bad
pruning 13
" 8. Portion of a branch left in pruning 13
" 9. Portion of a branch left in pruning at the end of the fifth
year 14
" 10. Portion of a branch left in pruning at the end of the tenth
year 15
" 11. Trunk ruined by the decay of the stump of a branch . . 15
" 12. Form for young tree 20
" 13. Form for middle-aged tree 20
" 14. Form for old tree 21
" 15. Form for very old tree 21
" 16. Pruning knife 22
" 17. Hook used in carrying pruning knife 22
" 18. Manner of carrying pruning knife 23
" 19. Manner of carrying pruning knife 23
"20. Manner of attaching the ladder to the tree 24
" 21. Manner of using dendroscope 26
" 22. Formation of a leader 27
" 23. Formation of a head with several branches 28
" 24. Method of shortening a main branch 29
" 25. Treatment for a forking branch 30
xiv TREE PRUNING.
PAGE
FIG. 26. Method of shortening a main branch .32
" 27. Pruning badly commenced 33
" 28. Method of cutting a large branch 35
" 29. Method of cutting a large branch ........ 36
" 30. Proper appearance of a wound made in pruning ... §6
" 31. Formation of a leader on a young tree 39
" 32. Method of supporting a young tree 39
" 33. Young tree properly pruned 40
" 34. Method of forming a leader on a young tree .... 40
" 35. Method of forming a leader on a young tree .... 41
" 36. First pruning of a young tree 41
" 37. Treatment of a forked tree 42
" 38. Method of pruning a weak sapling 42
" 39. Tree forty years old. First pruning 43
" 40. Tree sixty years old. First pruning 43
" 41. Badly shaped tree. First pruning 44
" 42. Old Oaks. First pruning 45
" 43. Old Oaks. First pruning 45
" 44. Method of pruning an old tree to preserve its younger
neighbor 46
" 45. Very old tree. First pruning 47
" 46. Trunk of Oak injured by neglect 48
" 47. The same two years after treatment 48
" 48. Oak restored to vigor by pruning 49
" 49. Treatment of an old wound 52
" 60. Treatment of cavities in the trunk 54
" 51. Pruning hook 55
" 52. Formation of branches on young trees 56
" 53. Pine badly pruned 64
V 64. The dendroscope 67
TREE PRUNING.
TREE PRUNING.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
THE appearance of many trees, their trunks cov-
ered with gaping wounds, protuberances, and the
stumps of dead branches, clearly indicates that they
have received careless or ignorant treatment. It is
evident even to persons little familiar with the art
of Sylviculture that such trees are decayed to the
heart, and of little value for industrial purposes.
The number of trees thus affected is very great,
and the annual aggregate loss to the community
from the bad management to which trees are every-
where subjected is enormous. Such a condition is
the result generally of entire neglect of pruning,
or often, perhaps, of an unnatural and therefore
improper system.
The idea of increasing the productive capacity of
forests by systematic pruning is not a new one, — no
process of Sylviculture has been more often discussed.
In Belgium, where more than in any other country
6 TREE PRUNING.
the subject of forest management has occupied the
public mind, the two legislative chambers, a few
years ago, discussed this subject at great length with-
out reaching any satisfactory conclusion ; in France,
authorities do not yet agree, — some condemn all
pruning, while others believe in the advantage of
pruning, but without agreeing on the best methods
to adopt.
Certain theorists declare that there is an absolute
correlation between the roots and the branches of a
tree, and that the cutting off of a branch necessarily
kills the corresponding root. If such a theory is cor-
rect, how can the results obtained by cutting back
young trees to the ground or the topping of pollards,
by which all branches are suppressed, be explained ?
A more serious objection to pruning, w.hich is often
made by timber dealers, — the persons, perhaps, most
interested in the matter, and therefore most compe-
tent to judge, — is that trees which have been pruned
lose by the operation twenty-five, thirty, or even fifty
per cent of their value, that is, a quarter to a half,
and that such trees are generally decayed. This can-
not be denied ; but it proves that such trees have
been badly pruned, — not that all pruning is bad.
Opponents of pruning maintain, too, that the scars
which such operations must leave on the trunks of
trees indicate internal defects in the wood, and that
these trees cannot be readily sold. This objection is
also well founded in view of the manner in which the
operations of pruning are generally performed ; but
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
it is the method which is faulty, and such objections
must disappear before more scientific and rational
treatment.
A glance at Fig. 1 shows the effects of bad prun-
ing. Here the trunk of a Beech is represented
mutilated, and in a condition
which might well justify the
general condemnation of prun-
ing, if pruning was always fol-
lowed by such results.
A system of forest manage-
ment which discards pruning
is disastrous, and, even if it
were less so, would have many
practical objections. A tree
left entirely to itself gener-
ally develops in one of two
directions. It does not grow
upwards and assumes the low
round form common to the
apple-tree ; the lower branches
Fig. 1. - Badly pruned Beech ;
gTOW disproportionately large its trunk covered with cavities of
, , , different depths and partly filled
and absorb too much sap, with water.
to the detriment of the top of the tree ; and these
long, heavy branches are often broken by the wind
or by snow and ice, leaving hideous stumps (Fig. 2).
Trees of this form are very common ; they gen-
erally decay at the top before reaching maturity,
and have little commercial value. On the other
hand, many vigorous trees grow disproportionately
8 TREE PRUNING.
at the top ; the lower branches die from insufficient
nourishment, fall off, and leave, when large, bare
Fig. 2. — A young unpruned Oak growing in rich soil. A. Dead
branches. B. Branches broken by the wind or by the weight of
snow and ice.
decayed spots, which gradually penetrate to the
heart of the tree, and ruin also its commercial
value (Fig. 3).
Wounds caused by the breaking off of large
branches by wind or snow produce the same results
(Fig. 4). There is no remedy for the dangerous
effects of such accidents except in pruning ; it is a
simple question of surgery. Without pruning, the
tree must sooner or later decay ; with pruning, its
value may be preserved.
The secret of obtaining a complete cure in all
operations requiring the removal of a branch, either
living or dead, consists in cutting dose to, and perfectly
even with, the trunk. Many authorities have hinted
at this, the cardinal principle of all pruning ; but M.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
9
de Courval first clearly demonstrated its importance,
while his discovery of the value of coal-tar or the
refuse from gas-works as a
covering for wounds made
in pruning renders the ap-
plication of his rule in all
cases entirely safe.
Formation of Wood. — The
reason that a branch should
be cut close and even with
the trunk is found in one
of the simple laws of plant
life. It is known that sap
has a double movement, —
that it mounts from the
roots to the leaves, and
returns again in an elabo-
rated condition to the roots.
RootS take Up Water from ^-S.-Portion of the trunk of an
unpruned Oak ruined by the decay of its
the soil in which there are lower branches,
various salts in solution. This water rises to the
leaves ; these absorb from the air and decompose
carbonic acid gas, the basis of which is carbon,
which combined with water constitutes the elements
of wood. The sap thus elaborated by the leaves
is carried down again in a liquid state and is
deposited, year after year, in the successive concen-
tric layers of wood which form the trunks of all
trees, with the exception of Palms, Yuccas, &c.,
which need not now be considered.
10 TREE PRUNING.
It follows that a wound caused by the amputation
of a branch must, in order to heal properly, be made
perfectly even with the trunk, that
every part of its outer edge may be
brought into direct communication
with the leaves through the net-
work of cells destined to convey
the descending sap. Although this
theory rests on one of the most
elementary principles of vegetable
physiology, it has not been applied
, before to practical forest manage-
the loss of a ment. The amputation having
large branch broken by the
wind. been made even with the trunk
in the manner explained, new wood will soon appear,
forming first round the top and sides of the wound,
which is soon completely surrounded by the new
growth ; the wound is gradually healed over, and
the decay of the trunk prevented. The time required
for the complete healing of a wound depends, of
course, upon its dimensions and the natural vigor
of the tree.
The principle being established that large wounds
can be made without injury to the tree if care is
taken in the manner indicated to prevent decay, it
is easy to show the advantage of cutting off injured
branches of any size. It is preferable to avoid, of
course, the necessity of making large wounds by
properly pruning trees when young. All foresters
agree that trees should be trained when young, but
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 11
de Courval has amply demonstrated by numerous
remarkable specimens exhibited at the Agricultural
Show of Paris, in 1861, and at the Universal Exposition
of London, in 1862, that it is beneficial, and often in-
dispensable, to prune the oldest trees if care and judg-
ment are used in the operation. He has clearly
shown, too, that trunks so treated attained a larger
size and a greater value in a given time than those
which, under similar conditions of growth, had been
allowed to retain all their badly placed branches.
I regret in this connection to differ from so eminent
an authority as de Breuil, who gives the following
rule : " Amputations must be performed in such a
manner that the diameter of the wound shall not
exceed that of the end of the branch." Such a
practice must, I believe, be dis-
astrous, for whenever a branch
of large size is amputated in this
way, it is evident that a cavity
in the trunk of the tree will
sooner or later appear.
Disadvantages of the Common Sys-
tem of Pruning. — As descending
sap alone forms the new bark and
wood which heal over a wound, it follows that, if
a cut is made in the manner represented by the
line A B (Fig. 5), the new growth cannot cover
over the lower part, B C, which is cut off from
communication with the leaves ; so that the wood
included in the lines A B, AC, not being covered
12 TREE PRUNING.
with a new growth must soon begin to decay, and in
time destroy the trunk of the tree (Fig. 6). Ex-
amples of this bad method are very common. Each
amputation of a branch produces a cavity, and the
tree soon becomes entirely decayed. In view of such
destruction, it might seem, perhaps, that branches of
a certain diameter cannot be safely amputated. That
this is an erroneous idea will be easily seen ; and it is
only necessary to make the amputation even with the
trunk, and then cover the wound with coal tar to
avoid all bad Vesults. Although
wounds caused by the amputation
of small branches heal over in spite
of the faulty methods of pruning
generally employed, such opera-
tions are, nevertheless, attended
with considerable danger to the
tree. Protuberances are formed
°U the tl>Unk ^ tU
Fig. 6. — Decaying Oak,
showing the effect of ampu- the branches have been cut, and
tating a branch in such a
way that the diameter of the these produce a multitude of Small
shoots (A, Fig. 7). The
the branch. development of such shoots in-
dicates that a tree is in an unnatural condition, which
may be entirely avoided by cutting the branch even
with the trunk (B, Fig. 7).
Experience and common-sense show the objection
to leaving any portion of an amputated limb, but
there is greater danger in allowing stumps one or
two feet long to remain on the trunk, a common
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
13
practice even among persons interested in the preser-
vation of trees (Fig. 8).
Fig. 7. — Longitudinal section of the trunk of an
Oak cut twenty years after pruning. A. A medium-
sized branch badly amputated. B. A large branch
properly amputated
These stumps, deprived of communication with the
leaves, die, the bark falls off, while the stumps them-
selves remain like plugs of
decaying wood driven into
the trunk (Fig. 9>
In a few years the stumps
rot (Fig. 10), and decay
penetrates to the heart of
the tree. Fig. 11 shows the
fatal results of this method
of pruning.
The method of pruning
deciduous forest trees, and especially the Oak, will be
first considered in this treatise. The Oak is selected
as the most valuable of our timber trees, and because
unfortunate and deeply rooted prejudices exist in
Fig. 8. — Stump of a branch left
in pruning.
14 TREE PRUNING.
regard to the manner in which it should be pruned.
Particular attention will be given to the treatment of
trees intended to grow on to
maturity, in connection with
a system of coppice growth,
because this system of forest
management is now very gen-
erally adopted.1 The methods
here advocated are, however,
equally applicable to other
systems of sylviculture ; and
Fig. 9. — Condition of the stump
at the end of the fifth year. they should interest small as
well as large land owners, as in every field and along
every roadside are trees to prune and improve. If
the importance of properly caring for trees could
be appreciated, an important addition to the wealth
of the nation might easily be made. Oaks, stunted
or abandoned, and only fit for fuel, might in a few
years be transformed into trees of great value ; and, if
all who prune may not themselves find their reward,
they can at least have the satisfaction of doing some-
thing to benefit another generation.
1 Futaie sur taillis, a term which is without equivalent in the Eng-
lish language, is applied in France to a very common system of
forest management. It consists in allowing a certain number of
selected trees in a plantation to grow to maturity, while the remainder
is treated as coppice, or " sprout land," and cut over at stated periods,
varying from ten to fifty years, according to the nature of the soil or
the necessity or wishes of the proprietor. The trees left to reach
maturity are called " reserves," and are intended to furnish large
timber for purposes of construction. These, of course, receive the
greatest care and most careful pruning. c. s. s.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
15
Fig. 10. — Condition of the stump
at the end of the tenth year.
Advantage of increasing the Number of Reserve
Trees. — In addition to the advantages which each
individual tree may derive
from the method of pruning
recommended in this treatise,
there is a possibility of add-
ing, and, in fact, doubling the
number of reserve trees in a
plantation without interfer-
ing with the coppice or grow-
ing sprouts which surround
them.
If it can be proved that the number of timber trees
may be doubled in a plantation by good management,
and that the value of indi-
vidual trees scattered through
the fields and along the road-
sides may be wonderfully in-
creased, it is easy to under-
stand that a land-owner may
greatly benefit himself and
add to the wealth of his
country by adopting such
methods.
That pruning can accom-
plish the results which are claimed for it is found in
the fact that trees treated by the rational system
proposed grow more vigorously and retain their
foliage longer than unpruned trees in the same
locality grown under similar conditions.
Fig. 11. — Trunk of an Oak ruined
by the decay of the stump of a
branch.
16 TREE PRUNING.
Authorities agree on the influence which trees exert
on the climate, the watercourses and the fertility of
the soil. Economically indispensable trees are not
less important in their influence on the health of man.
Trees purify the air we breathe by absorbing noxious
gases, and it is clearly for the interest of the com-
munity to preserve and multiply the forests, which
protect the human race from many evils.
ITS AIMS AND METHODS. 17
CHAPTER II.
GOOD PRUNING.— ITS AIMS AND METHODS.— DIVI-
SION BY AGE OF RESERVE TREES INTO FOUR
CLASSES.
Aim and Method of Pruning, — The object of pruning,
economically considered, is to make it possible to
raise on a given surface, say on one hundred acres
of sprout land, the greatest number of full-grown
trees, and to make them attain the greatest value
in the shortest time without injury to the young
trees beneath them. This may be accomplished by
increasing the vigor of the reserve trees and by
lengthening, without diminishing in diameter, their
trunks. Treated in this manner the reserve trees
do not interfere with the circulation of air and light
necessary to the development of the undergrowth ;
and many serious accidents caused to trees by wind,
frost, and snow breaking the larger branches may be
avoided by keeping their heads symmetrical and up-
right.
The perfect forest tree has a straight, single trunk
without protuberances or wounds, and carrying up
the same diameter to the first branches, which should
2
18 TREE PRUNING.
be placed at a distance from the ground equal to
one-third or one-half of the total height of the tree.
The head should be rounded, regular, and set up-
right on the trunk. The wood, owing to the healthy
growth of the tree, is straight-grained, compact, and
suitable for construction. Such trees have a high
value ; and, in order to grow them, a method of prun-
ing is adopted similar to that practised by gardeners
in forming pyramidal fruit trees, with the difference,
however, that the gardener favors the development
of the lower branches, which are necessary for his
purpose, while the aim of the forester is to increase
foliage at the top of the tree by diminishing the vigor
of the lower branches ; and to obtain by successive
suppressions of branches the necessary length of
trunk.
There are two distinct operations in pruning : the
removal of some branches, the shortening of others.
The shape of a tree must depend somewhat, of course,
upon its age, the nature of its surroundings, and the
character of the soil, etc. Where pruning is not
practised the reserve trees approach the proper form
in proportion to the length of time the coppice
beneath them is allowed to grow. In forests, where
thirty or more years are allowed to elapse between
the cuttings, the undergrowth serves to prune the
permanent trees by checking5 the development of
their lower branches, and thus determining the height
of their trunks. Sprout land is, however, often cut
over every ten years ; and this practice prevents the
ITS AIMS AND METHODS. 19
production of fine trees by permitting the growth
of their lower branches. These, of course, interfere
with the growth of the reserve trees themselves as
well as with the young trees between them. Judi-
cious pruning can obviate this difficulty.
Classification of Forest Trees according to Age. — The
technical names by which reserve trees are known
vary in different regions. For our purpose it will be
best to divide the life of a forest tree into four prin-
cipal periods, designated as follows : —
1. Young, up to about forty years.
2. Middle-aged, from forty to eighty years.
3. Old, from eighty to one hundred and fifty
years.
4. Very old trees, whose number is rapidly di-
minishing, may be called Veterans.1
These divisions are not, of course, absolute, as it is
often difficult to determine, even approximately, the
age of a standing tree ; and the forester must use
considerable judgment in the application of the fol-
lowing rules : —
1. The head of the young tree should be egg-
shaped or elongated oval (Fig. 12), and well balanced
1 The technical terms employed in France to designate trees of the
four classes into which forest trees are generally divided, Baliveau,
Moderne, Ancien, and Vieilles tfcorces, have no equivalent as yet, and are
not well translated into English. The term " Baliveau " is also some-
times applied to reserve trees of any age left after the first cutting off
of a plantation, and such trees are then called " Modernes " or
" Anciens," according as they have been allowed to remain after a
second or third cutting of the coppice. c. s. s.
20
TREE PRUNING.
on the trunk, which should not exceed a third of the
entire height of the tree. The lower branches should
Fit*. 12. — Cor-
rect form of head
for a tree under
forty years old.
Fig. 13. — Cor-
rect form of head
for a tree forty to
eighty years old.
be sufficiently shortened to check their excessive
growth at the expense of the leader, without, how-
ever, being so reduced as to impair the vigor of
growth of the tree.
2. The head of the middle-aged tree should form
an oval less elongated than that necessary for trees
of the first class. The height of the trunk should
equal one-third to two-fifths of the height of the
tree (Fig. 13).
3. The head of the old tree (Fig. 14) should be
gradually rounded in outline ; the trunk may, in
some cases, be made to reach a height equal to half
the height of the tree, which has now probably ceased
to grow upwards.
ITS AIMS AND METHODS.
21
4. Veterans (Fig. 15). Trees classed as veterans
have generally ceased to increase in size. They
Fig. 14. — Correct form of
head for a tree eighty to one
hundred and fifty years old.
Fig. 15. — Correct form of
head for a very old tree.
gradually become flat-headed, and spread out, with-
out, however, greatly injuring the adjoining coppices
and plantations destined to take their place.
The proper method of pruning trees in each of
these four divisions will be considered hereafter.
It is well to remember that the forms recommended
are those nature gives the most perfect and most
beautiful trees ; although it is the economic and not
the picturesque aspect of trees which is here under
consideration.
'22 TREE PRUNING.
CHAPTER III.
APPLICATION OF THE SYSTEM.
Tools used in Pruning. — The most convenient tool
for pruning is a straight-bladed cleaving knife. Suc-
cess in all operations of pruning depends on
the neatness of the cut, and this cannot be
attained with the common billhook used in
many parts of France. The best tool for
the purpose is (Fig. 16) one which has
been used for many years in Holland, and
which has lately been improved by de
Fig. 16. — Courval. It weighs from 2 Ibs. 12 oz.
Improved
pruning knife, to 3 Ibs. 6 oz., or more, according to the
Stein incfes] strength of the workman. The blade is
reinforced in the middle to increase its
Jlr strength and concentrate the weight. In
H the north of France this tool is generally
Fig, 17. _ hung to an iron hook (Fig. 17) attached
to a leather strap buckled round the work-
the pruning man's waisf who is thus left perfectly free
knife to the
belt. in his movements (Fig. 18).
In pruning tall trees, or trees otherwise difficult
to climb, the leather belt may with advantage be
passed over the shoulder, thus bringing the pruning
APPLICATION OF THE SYSTEM.
23
knife under the arm in a position from which it can-
not easily be dislodged in climbing (Fig. 19). To in-
sure greater safety in climbing tall trees, a stout cord
attached to the workman's waist may be fastened
round the trunk in such a manner as to prevent, in
case of accident, a dangerous fall. A hatchet is use-
Fig. 18. — Pruning knife
carried at the waist.
Fig. 19. — Pruning knife
carried under the arm.
ful, and facilitates the operation of pruning ; it may
be used with one or both hands, and serves to lop off
large branches, protuberances on the trunk, or the
dead stumps of branches, which from their hardness
would soon dull the edge of the best pruning knife.
A saw, too, is very useful in cutting large branches,
but it requires so much practice to use this tool skil-
fully that it cannot be generally recommended.
Ladders. — Each laborer should be equipped with a
light ladder, proportionate to the height of the tree
on which he is to operate, and broader at the base
than at the top. De Courval recommends that the
24
TREE PRUNING.
feet of ladders intended for this purpose should be
pointed to prevent them from slipping. This is a good
plan, although hardly sufficient to prevent accident,
and the top of the ladder should be fastened with a
strong rope to the trunk of the tree to prevent it from
being thrown down by falling branches (Fig. 20).
Hooks or Spurs. — Except in very exceptional cases,
or where very large trees are
to be operated on, the climb-
ing spurs sometimes used by
professional pruners should
not be allowed. These men,
paid according to the number
of trees operated on or the
quantity of wood cut, have
no idea in pruning be-
yond cutting the largest
^ jn the short.
the paii of coai-tar. est time. Climbing spurs
should never be used by good workmen even, in
pruning young trees, whose bark is not sufficiently
thick to resist the wounds caused by the sharp iron
teeth of this tool. Wounds made in this way en-
courage the growth of injurious side shoots on the
trunk, and leave defects in the wood which never
disappear, and diminish its value.
The future value of a tree depends upon the man-
ner in which the operation of pruning has been per-
formed ; and the persons to whom this work is
intrusted should fully understand its importance.
Fig. 20. -Ladder fastened with a t Qf
rope and carrying on the top-round
APPLICATION OF THE SYSTEM. 25
Unskilful or injudicious pruning may completely
ruin a tree, and the difficulty of obtaining labor
capable of doing such work intelligently causes, no
doubt, many arboriculturists to completely neglect
pruning of every kind.
The Dendroscope, — The tree requiring pruning
should be carefully studied from the ground, that
the operator may be able to judge intelligently
which branches should be removed or shortened in
order to reduce it to the desired shape. This may at
first seem difficult to beginners in the art of pruning ;
and a dendroscope, the name suggested for a simple
little contrivance, the use of which is shown at Fig.
21, may be here used with advantage. A dendroscope
may be made from a piece of thin board or card-board
(a playing card answers the purpose), in which a hole
of the shape it is desired to reduce the tree to has been
cut (see Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15). Across the middle
of the hole, from top to bottom, a piece of fine wire
is stretched to serve as a guide to the eye.
Holding the dendroscope at the level of the eye,
with the wire opposite the centre of the trunk of the
tree to be studied, the operator approaches the tree
until the bottom of the cut falls on the trunk at
the ground line. It is easy to see at a glance with
the aid of this contrivance, what operations should
be performed in order to reduce the tree to the
desired shape.1
1 A glance at the dendroscope placed at the end of this volume will
show the advantage of using such an aid to the eye.
26
TREE PRUNING.
Remembering that under ordinary circumstances,
a vigorous, handsome tree must have a straight,
vertical trunk and an evenly balanced head, the first
object of pruning should be to produce these condi-
tions. The head, as has already been explained,
should be oval in form ; the height of this, however,
APPLICATION OF THE SYSTEM. 27
must depend on the size of the trunk and the age
of the tree when first subjected to the operations of
pruning.
Selection of the Leader, — The branch most nearly per-
pendicular on the trunk of the tree should be selected
to form the leader ; and it may be stated as an abso-
lute rule, that whenever a branch near the top of the
tree stands vertically on the trunk, or even on any
part of the trunk, it should be preserved for the leader
(Fig. 22).
Fig. 22. --Oak sixty years old. Formation of a
leader from a vertical branch.
And it is wrong to suppose that only the original
leader can be used. Its place may be often supplied
by one of the lateral branches even ; and by shorten-
ing the other branches to stimulate the growth of the
new leader, the tree will, in a few years, straighten up
in a manner which will appear astonishing to persons
28
TREE PRUNING.
unfamiliar with the results which may be obtained
from a sensible system of pruning.
If none of the branches near the top of the tree
naturally approach a vertical position, two or three or
several branches should be preserved to form a com-
pact head, as represented in Fig. 23. If the tree so
. Fig. 23. — Oak with irregular head formed with
several large branches.
treated is young, it is desirable, if possible, to establish
the fork at a distance from the ground equal to at
least one third of the height which the tree may be
expected to attain at maturity.
Shortening Main Branches. — Starting from the top
of the tree, where the operation of pruning should
Always begin, the leader is first formed with the
branch selected for this purpose ; the head is made
with a single leader ; or, in case of necessity (Fig.
23), with several leaders. The principal branches, if
APPLICATION OF THE SYSTEM. 29
too long, should then be shortened, especially those
inclined to assume a vertical position or to grow with
too great vigor at the expense of the leader ; such
branches are called gourmands. It will be seen that
the right point at which to shorten these vertical
branches is the point where they begin to assume
an upright growth (A and B, Fig. 24).
Fig. 24. — Double shortening of a main branch. A. Gourmand
branch. B. Secondary branch. C. Small branch retained to insure a
proper flow of sap.
In shortening branches, the cut should, if possible,
be made above the point of development of one or
several secondary ascending branches ; these in turn
should also be cut just above one of their secondary
branches. In this way the direction of the main
branch maybe entirely changed(Fig. 24), and its dis-
proportionate vigor checked to the benefit of the
leader and the whole tree.
Sap Lifters. — The name of sap lifter l may, for want
of a better term, be given to the branch or branches
retained at the end of the shortened main branch.
1 Branche d'appel.
30 TREE PRUNING.
The name indicates the object for which such branches
are left ; namely, to attract and elaborate, by means
Fig. 25. — Removal of a portion of a forking branch. A. Preser-
vation of a horizontal fork at the end of a shortened branch.
of their leaves, a sufficient flow of sap to insure the
growth of the branch. Sometimes the main branches
are so long that it is impossible for the operator to
reach the ends where the sap-lifting branchlets should,
of course, be left. In the case of the Oak, such
branches, except for the appearance of the tree, are
of little importance ; and provided the main branch
retained is of a certain length (ten or twelve feet),
and if it is large and on a large healthy tree, a suffi-
cient number of new shoots to insure vigorous growth
will soon appear. With the Beech, however, and
some other trees which do not develop shoots from
dormant buds as freely as the Oak, it is necessary to
cut the branch just above the forking of another
branch or branchlet large enough to attract sufficient
sap to insure a healthy growth.
APPLICATION OF THE SYSTEM. 31
Double or Forking Branches. — In the case of a double
branch, or 'of a branch forking close to the trunk of
the tree, one of these branches (Fig. 25) should
always be removed, that the base of the branch may
not become disproportionately large. If, however,
such double branches are objectionable near the trunk
of the tree, they are of great importance at the extrem-
ities of main branches ; and whenever it is possible,
branches should be shortened in such a manner as to
secure forking branchlets at their ends. These give
to the tree a more natural appearance, and by divid-
ing the flow of sap prevent the growth of too vigorous
shoots, which might in time develop into supplemen-
tary leaders, to the injury of the tree. For ttis
reason it is necessary to remove all branches or
branchlets assuming a vertical growth or inserted
on the upper side of a shortened branch, in order
to check the tendency of such branches to grow
too vigorously at the expense of the leader (Fig.
26).
Although essential in pruning young trees, this is
less important in the case of older trees with large
full heads, which in themselves have a tendency to
check an unnaturally strong growth of any individual
branch ; and, in operating on old trees, the preserva-
tion of vigor in the shortened branch is the principal
object to be attained. It is almost unnecessary to add
that only main branches directed towards the outside
of the tree should be preserved, and that branches
which from any cause have turned back towards the
32
TREE PRUNING.
trunk should be headed in, as well as branches with
too great a tendency to droop unnaturally ; generally,
Fig. 26. — Effect of preserving a vertical secondary branch on the
upper side of a shortened main branch. A. Branch thus retained, ex-
cessively developed at the expense of the rest of the tree. B. Sap lifter of
the right size left on the lower side of the main branch to insure its
development.
It will only be necessary to shorten such branches
to induce them to reassume a natural direction of
growth.
When several branches have been developed from
one node, forming what botanists call a whorl, they
should not all be cut away at the same time, lest the
circulation of sap be checked by the destruction of
bark (and consequently of cambium layer) over too
large a surface.
All dead and d}dng wood should be removed by
the workmen in descending the tree ; lichens, and
other parasites which interfere with the growth of
young trees, should be knocked off with the back
of the pruning knife ; and the Mistletoe, the most
destructive of all parasites to tree life, should be
APPLICATION OF THE SYSTEM.
33
carefully removed by cutting off the branch bearing
it.1
The necessity of commencing the operation of prun-
ing at the top of the tree must be insisted on ; in no
other way can the form proper to the tree be es-
tablished or the safety of the operator preserved.
The disregard of this rule was followed not long
ago by what might have been a severe accident. An
excellent workman was about finishing the pruning of
Fig. 27. — Pruning badly commenced.
a Beech tree ; two long, slender branches (A and B,
Fig. 27) remained to be operated on. He cut the
lln some portions of the United States where the American
species of Mistletoe flourishes, especially in the Mississippi States
south of the Ohio, great damage is done to different trees by this
plant. The destruction of the Black Walnut from this cause has
become very general, and causes serious loss in some portions of
Kentucky and Tennessee. c. s. s.
34 TREE PRUNING.
lower of the two branches first ; the twigs on the
ends of the branches had become interlocked, and the
branch B, in falling, pulled down the branch A. This
broke under the weight of the first, and, striking the
operator on the head, inflicted a severe wound, causing
his fall to the ground, a distance of twenty or thirty
feet.
The Amputation of Large Branches. — Many of the
lower branches previously shortened must afterwards
be removed, from time to time, until the necessary
height of trunk has been attained. The number of
branches to be removed must, of course, depend on
the height of the tree, the nature of the soil in which
it grows, and its age when first operated on. Great
caution should be observed in amputating large
branches ; small branches can, of course, be lopped off
at any time without danger to the tree. We agree
with de Courval that at least three medium-sized
branches may be safely removed from a tree in one
year ; although if the branches are very large, not
more than one, or perhaps two, should be cut at one
time. It is always desirable, however, not to unnec-
essarily increase by the removal of living branches the
wounds left on the trunk by the cutting off of dead
branches or other excrescences.
Whenever it is necessary to amputate a large or
long branch, it should be cut first in such a manner
as to leave a stump two or three feet long before the
final operation of cutting it close to the trunk is un-
dertaken (Fig. 28). In this way the danger of tearing
APPLICATION OF THE SYSTEM.
35
away by the weight of the falling branch portions of
the bark of the trunk may be avoided. This will pre-
Fig. 28. — Danger of beginning the amputa-
tion of a long, heavy branch by a cut close
to the trunk. A. Point at which the branch
should be first cut. B. Branch badly cut ; the
butt striking the workman.
vent, too, the serious accidents which often occur
when a large branch is cut at first close to the trunk,
when the end striking the ground may cause the butt
to fly up and throw down the workman. It is an in-
dispensable condition of the prompt healing over and
perfect circulation of sap that all wounds should be
evenly cut and shaped as nearly as possible to the
trunk of the tree. In order to secure this condition,
the operation of amputating a branch should be com-
36
TREE PRUNING.
menced by making a notch on its lower side (A, Fig.
29). This notch should reach the middle of the
Fig. 29. — Method of preventing
injury from the fall of a heavy
branch by cutting notches on the
lower and upper sides.
Fig. 30. — Proper appearance
of a wound caused by the ampu-
tation of a large branch.
branch ; a second notch, B, should then be made on
the upper side of the branch, but further from the
trunk of the tree than the cut A. By adopting this
method all danger, too, of injury to the trunk from
the weight of the falling branch tearing away the
bark will be avoided.
The operation of amputating a branch will not
be complete, whatever method is employed, until
the wound is made perfectly smooth (Fig. 30). The
workman may do this with his hatchet used as a
plane, the handle being held in one hand and the
point of the blade in the other.
Use of Coal-tar in Dressing Wounds. — All wounds
made on the tree in pruning should be covered with
a coat of coal-tar applied with an ordinary painter's
brush.
APPLICATION OF THE SYSTEM. 37
The importance of observing the directions which
have been given, however trivial or unimportant they
may seem, will be apparent when it is understood
that the entire success of the operations of pruning,
and of the future production of timber, depends on
the proper application of these rules.
It should always be borne in mind that a cut
perfectly smooth, and as closely following the line of
the trunk as circumstances will permit, is soon
recovered with healthy straight-grained wood. In
this connection it is well to quote from de Courval,
who speaks with the authority of experience, and
who has shown with many varieties of trees the cor-
rectness of his statements. " A casual examination,"
he says, " will show that between the surface,
which has been cut smooth and treated with coal-
tar, and the new tissues which soon cover it, there
is only the thinnest crack or fissure analogous to
the natural cracks or openings which always appear
in wood in seasoning, and which, as is well known,
do not diminish its strength, elasticity, or value for
all industrial purposes."
In the preceding pages, the general rules which
should be followed in pruning forest trees have
been given ; the special methods applicable to each
of the four classes in which trees have been placed
according to their age will now be briefly explained.
38 TREE PRUNING.
CHAPTER IV.
METHOD OF PRUNING RESERVE TREES OF DIFFERENT
AGES.
Young Trees, — Were it practicable to train young
forest trees from their early years in the manner
adopted in nurseries to form ornamental specimens,
they might, no doubt, be greatly improved, but in
planting on a large scale this is of course impossible,
and it will be assumed that the young trees destined
to serve as reserves have been entirely neglected up to
the time of the first cutting over of the plantation.
Where it is the custom to cut over coppice once in
every ten or fifteen years, the young reserve trees are
often weak and without a proper proportion of lower
branches ; and thus liable to break down under the
too great weight of their tops. If the young trees
are too weak to support a ladder, they must be bent
down by the hand or by a forked stick, and the
weight of the head reduced.
The stem in the case of young trees should, if pos-
sible, be furnished with branches for two thirds
of its length ; and if the leader is dead, or out of
PRUNING RESERVE TREES. 39
perpendicular, it should be cut off and a vigorous
branch taken up to supply its place. This should
be fastened in an upright position
to the base of the original leader,
and if some small branches can be
left on this they may be used as
withes to hold the new leader in place
(Fig. 31).
If the young tree is not strong enough
to stand alone, it must be supported IT
by means of a forked stick placed |\
against the side to which it inclines
^
(Fig. 32), a cushion of moss or straw °n * young tree
twelve or fifteen
being used to prevent the bark from yearsoid.
chafing against the support. It would be better to
permanently stake and tie all such feeble young trees,
but in a large plantation this is not prac-
ticable.
0 When coppice is allowed to grow for
twenty years or more, the young re-
serve tree is less difficult to manage, has
fewer unfavorable conditions to contend
against, and has at least gained the ad-
vantage of sufficient strength to support
a ladder ; one of the upright upper
branches can, if necessary, be used to
J Fig. 32. -Method
form a leader; branches either too long of piping up a
or growing in the wrong direction young tree-
should be shortened or removed to give to the head
the elongated shape required to prevent the excessive
40
TREE PRUNING.
development of the lower branches (Fig 33). It may
be well to add too, perhaps, that in pruning a young
reserve tree twenty years old the main branches
should be shortened to about three feet, not including
the branchlets left at their extremities to provide the
Fig. 33 — Young tree
twenty years old correctly
pruned.
Fig. 34. —Method of forming
a leader for a young tree by
straightening up a lateral branch.
tree with a sufficient supply of sap. Proportion-
ately larger branches must of course be left on older
and larger trees.
Young trees grown in poor or imperfectly drained
soil, or under the unfavorable conditions arising from
want of light, are often destitute of proper leaders.
Generally, as has already been explained, a leader can
be formed by straightening up a branch either by the
aid of a withe fastened to one of the shortened branches
(Fig. 34), or more simply by a small branch twisted
round the branch selected for the leader (Fig. 35).
PRUNING RESERVE TREES.
41
The new leader thus formed will soon begin to grow,
and in a short time will entirely change the appear-
ance of a stunted sickly tree (Fig. 36), which, so
treated, will become straight and vigorous.
Fig. 35. — Method of forming a
leader for a young tree by straight-
ening up a lateral branch.
Fig. 36. — Badly grown tree
twenty to thirty years old. First
pruning
In the case of young trees with a forking main stem,
only one of the leaders should be allowed to remain,
and the one preserved should be the more nearly up-
right of the two, without regard to its size or length.
A strong strap, fastened to the stump of the suppressed
branch, may, if necessary, be used to draw up the
leader into a straight position (Fig. 37) ; when this is
necessary proper precautions, however, must be taken
to prevent the bark from being injured by the strap.
Often young reserve trees otherwise desirable to pre-
serve are unable, from the unfavorable conditions under
which they have grown or on account of injuries re*
42
TREE PRUNING.
ceived from falling trees, to support their own weight,
and bend over to the ground. When possible such
trees should be straightened and kept
upright by the aid of a wire fastened
to a neighboring tree. When a wire
is used for this purpose, it should be
fastened to a branch, and not to the
trunk which it might, by its cutting
and charing, easily seriously injure.
Should it be found impossible to
straighten (Fig. 38) the young tree,
it must, unless cut back close to the
ground with the loss of several years'
0af g™wth, be shortened in at some dis-
tance (A) above the bend caused by
the weight of the head ; and above a branch C,
which, while furnishing the stump with sufficient
sap, may be used as a withe to support in a ver-
Fig. 38. — Young tree bent to the ground by the weight of its top.
tical position the young branch B, destined to
form the new leader. The young tree thus reduced,
PRUNING RESERVE TREES.
43
and propped up with a forked stick, will in a short
time, the conditions being favorable, become a hand-
some specimen. Such operations are important and
should not be neglected, because, as has been ex-
plained, it is often desirable to increase the capacity
of a plantation to produce timber, by increasing the
number of reserve trees in it.
Middle-aged Trees, — As has been explained, in
woods frequently cut over, the treatment necessary for
young reserve trees is often complicated and difficult ;
this is not the case with older trees. Trees of the
second class constitute the most important part of the
forest, and should receive careful pruning. This gen-
erally is not difficult, and there are few trees of this
Fig. 39. — Tree forty years
old ; first pruning
Fig. 40.— Tree sixty or seventy years
old, first pruning (second year).
class which may not be either entirely restored, or at
least very materially improved, if the necessary sup-
44
TREE PRUNING.
pressions and reductions are operated with judgment
and courage (Fig. 39, 40).
The lower branches, which are often unnaturally
developed and interfere with the growth of the rest
of the tree, should be shortened to establish the
proper form of head, while the leader should be
treated in the manner already recommended (Fig.
41.)
A tree operated on in this manner will often appear
very bare at first ; but at the end of a few years the
head will have regained a sufficient
development.
Old Trees. — It is hardly neces-
sary to explain that old trees re-
quire more cautious treatment than
younger ones, which may if neces-
sary be entirely remodelled. In
pruning an old tree it is not a
question of a leader or of increas-
ing the size ; and it is only desir-
able to regulate the shape of the
head somewhat, by shortening when
necessary such branches as in-
terfcrc, by their length or position,
with the equilibrium of the tree itself, or injure other
trees in its vicinity. The heads of old trees should,
as far as possible, be reduced to a more or less rounded
ovoid, the lower branches being the shortest (Fig.
42, 43).
The main branches should be left six to twelve feet
First pruning.
PRUNING RESERVE TREES.
45
long, or even longer if they are furnished with sufficient
shoots to regulate the flow of sap, although it may be
Fig. 42, 43. — Old Oaks, first pruning.
well to repeat that the branches of the Beech should
not be shortened, unless it can be done in such a man-
ner as to insure, by abundant foliage at their ends,
the supply of sap necessary for the regular develop-
ment of the tree. In shortening branches, it is
difficult, especially for beginners in the art of pruning,
to determine the point at which the operation is best
performed. Practice and experience soon teach this,
however ; and, even if a few branches die under the
operation, no very serious damage has been done.
Two or three large branches can be safely removed at
one time from old trees ; and, although it is not de-
46
TREE PRUNING.
sirable to make many wounds on the trunk of an old
tree, they are less injurious than dead and decaying
branches, which produce cavities in the trunk that
should be avoided at any cost. The branches of an
old tree should not be allowed to interfere with the
growth of a younger tree standing near and intended
to replace it. In cases of this sort the branches of
the old tree should be cut in on the side nearest the
young tree much more severely than if it stood by
itself (Fig. 44).
Veterans, — If a tree of this class has been properly
managed, the length of the trunk should equal one
third to one half of its entire
height. The method of
pruning very old trees does
not essentially differ from
that recommended for trees
belonging to the last class.
All dead or dying wood
should be carefully removed,
and all old wounds not
covered with a healthy
growth of new wood should
be reopened in the manner to be explained hereafter.
All branches either disproportionately long or which
might interfere with neighboring trees should be
shortened ; and, should it appear advisable, one or
two of the lower branches may be amputated. This
can always be done without injury to the tree, and
has the advantage of increasing the length of the
Fig. 44.
PRUNING RESERVE TREES.
47
trunk and stimulating the growth of the top of the
tree (Fig. 45). A tree is never so old that prun-
ing, if practised with judg-
ment and skill, cannot pro-
long its life and increase
its value.
The restoration of an old
Oak maybe cited in this con-
nection. This tree, which
stood in a hedge-row, was
probably two hundred years
old and had suffered ter-
ribly from neglect and mu-
tilation. The lower por-
tion of the trunk was
covered with the dead
stumps of branches (Fig. lng'
46), their numerous protuberances being rilled with
cavities, and bristling with vigorous shoots. The top
had begun to decay, and the tree seemed destined to
speedy death. In pruning this tree, it became neces-
sary to make, in the space of a few feet, no less than
seven wounds ten to twenty inches wide, in addition
to many others of smaller size (Fig. 47). In spite of
this heroic treatment the tree improved remarkably
in health and vigor ; and the numerous wounds made
on the trunk by the amputation of dead branches en-
tirely healed over, as may be seen in Fig. 48.
It must be acknowledged that, had this Oak been
left in the condition to which neglect had reduced it,
Fig. 45. —Very old tree ; first prun-
48
TREE PRUNING.
or if nothing beyond lopping off from year to year the
young shoots developed along the trunk had been at-
Fig. 46. — Trunk of an Oak injured
by neglect and bad pruning.
Fig. 47. — Trunk of the same
tree two years after treatment.
tempted, its decay would have been rapid and com-
plete ; without pruning it must soon have died
without yielding anything more valuable than fire-
wood.
The removal of numerous branches, for the purpose
of restoring vigor to a decrepit tree, may seem op-
posed to what has already been stated in regard to
the functions of leaves in elaborating plant food ;
and it might be argued that pruning must be inju-
rious, because, in shortening or removing a branch,
some of the leaf organs essential to the growth of the
tree must also be destroyed. Such an argument is
based on a popular error of very general acceptance.
It is often claimed that the healthy growth of a
plant depends on the number of its leaves. It is
PRUNING RESERVE TREES.
49
Fig. 48. — Old Oak restored to
vigor by numerous large amputa-
not, however, the number of leaves, but the total
superficial area of leaf surface, which determines the
vigor of growth of the plant.
An ordinary practice of the
nurseries affords a familiar ex-
ample.
A seedling tree several years
old bears, perhaps, twenty or
thirty leaves ; its stem is not
thicker than a quill, and it
does not grow vigorously. If,
however, this plant is cut down
to the ground in the spring, it
will be replaced, in four or five
months, by a stout vigorous
shoot often an inch in diameter, turns,
but carrying perhaps only six or eight very large
leaves ; the superficial leaf area of the new plant is
larger, although the actual number of its leaves may
be considerably smaller. This is what good pruning
accomplishes ; i. e., while it may reduce the number of
leaves on a tree, it increases their capacity to elabo-
rate plant food through increased superficial area.
Scientific pruning provides too, it must be remem-
bered, an abundant leaf area on the branchlets left
at the extremities of all shortened branches, and ar-
ranges the branches themselves in a manner to expose
the largest surface of foliage to the oblique rays of
the sun. It will be seen, then, that this apparent con-
tradiction between the practice and theory of pruning
4
50 TREE PRUNING.
does not exist ; and that pruning, while it reduces,
perhaps, the actual number of leaves on a tree, really
increases its vigor by furnishing the largest possible
leaf surface in the smallest possible space.
TREATMENT OF OLD WOUNDS. 51
CHAPTER V.
THE TREATMENT OF OLD WOUNDS. — CAVITIES IN
THE TRUNK. — THE REMOVAL OF SHOOTS.
BARK once injured or loosened can never attach
itself again to the trunk ; and whenever wounds,
abrasures, or sections of loose bark exist on the trunk
of a tree, the damaged part should be cut away
cleanly as far as the injury extends. Careful persons
have been known to nail on to a tree a piece of
loosened bark, in the hope of inducing it to grow
again, or at least of retaining on the young wood its
natural covering. Unfortunately the result produced
by this operation is exactly opposite to that intended.
The decaying wood and bark attract thousands of
insects, which find here safe shelter and abundant
food ; and, increasing rapidly, hasten the death of the
tree.
In such cases, instead of refastening the loosened
bark to the tree, it should be entirely cut away, care
being taken to give the cut a regular outline, espe-
cially on the lower side ; for, as has been already
explained, if a portion of the bark (A, Fig. 49),
52
TREE PRUNING.
even if adhering to the wood, is left without direct
communication with the leaves, it must die and
decay. A coating of coal-tar should,
of course, be applied to such wounds.
Loosened Bark. — It is necessary to
frequently examine the lower portions
of the trunk, especially of trees begin-
ning to grow old ; for here is often
found the cause of death in many trees,
in the large sheets of bark entirely sepa-
rated from the trunk. This condition
of things, which often cannot be de-
tected except by the hollow sound pro-
. 49. duced by striking the trunk with the
back of the iron pruning knife, arrests the circulation
of sap, while the cavity between the bark and the
wood furnishes a safe retreat for a multitude of in-
sects, which hasten the destruction of the tree. The
dead bark should be entirely removed, even should it
be necessary in so doing to make large wounds.
Attention, too, should be given to injuries to the
bark caused by the fall of neighboring trees. These
may remain hidden for years, and are often only
detected by the peculiar sound produced by a blow
of the pruning knife. Cases of this nature require
the treatment recommended for the last class.
Cavities in the Trunk. — Very often when a tree has
been long neglected, the trunk is seriously injured by
cavities caused by the decay of dead or broken
branches. It is not claimed that pruning can remove
TREATMENT OF OLD WOUNDS. 53
defects of this nature : it can with proper application,
however, arrest the progress of the evil, and in such
cases should always be resorted to. The edge of the
cavity should be cut smooth and even ; and all de-
composed matter, or growth of new bark formed in
the interior, should be carefully removed. A coating
of coal-tar should be applied to the surface of the
cavity, and the mouth plugged with a piece of well-
seasoned oak, securely driven into place. The end
of the plug should then be carefully pared smooth
and covered with coal-tar, precisely as if the stump
of a branch was under treatment. If the cavity is
too large to be closed in this manner, a piece of thor-
oughly seasoned oak-board, carefully fitted to it, may be
securely nailed into the opening and then covered with
coal-tar. It is often advisable to guard against the
attacks of insects, by nailing a piece of zinc or other
metal over the board, in such a way that the growth
of the new wood will in time completely cover it.
These operations resemble, if such a comparison
is admissible, the fillings performed by dentists, and
with the same object, — to check the progress of
decay.
A glance at Fig. 50 shows what takes place when
cavities in the trunks of trees are treated in the man-
ner recommended. On the right a cavity treated in
this manner is shown. New layers of healthy straight-
grained wood have already formed ; the circulation
of sap is regular and healthy ; and the tree is entirely
restored to health. On the left an old neglected
54
TREE PRUNING.
wound may be seen. These instructions are equally
applicable to the treatment of large wounds, caused
by the fall of branches broken by the wind, or by
any other cause (Fig. 4).
Removal of Shoots. — During
the spring following the opera-
tion of pruning, or even sooner
if the tree has been pruned
during the active flow of sap,
numerous shoots are developed
along the trunk, and especially
along the lower portion of the
branches. The number of such
F/IT. 50. -on the right an old shoots varies greatly in differ-
cavity properly treated and stop-
ped: and recovered at the end of ent trees; and although they
twenty years with sound straight- . • i ,-\ -\ . /»
grained wood. On the left a wound af6 DOt entirely the TCSUlt of
of the same sort abandoned and pruning, for Slich shoots appear
causing decay to penetrate to the
heart of the tree. on trees which have never been
pruned, still it is clear that their number and vigor
bear a certain relation to the number and size of the
branches removed in pruning, and that the more se-
verely a tree is pruned the more of these shoots it will
develop.
The removal of these lateral shoots is essential to
a healthy growth of the tree, and may be easily ac-
complished with a little pruning hook (Fig. 51), so
light that it can be used by a child if necessary. The
sharp blade is worked up and down in the direction
of the grain of the wood ; the little hook rounded at
the end is also sharpened, and can be used in cutting
\
TREATMENT OF OLD WOUNDS. 55
and pulling down shoots not entirely severed by the
blade.
The following method may be adopted in removing
these young shoots. When the second or August
growth of the tree is finished, and the
young shoots are still soft and tender, that
is in August and September, a workman
armed with two pruning hooks, fastened
on long tough handles of different lengths,
and carrying his pruning knife in his belt,
commences the operation by cutting off all
the shoots within reach of his knife.
This is continued first with the short and
then with the long-handled pruning hook,
with which he will be able to reach to the
top of the trunk of an ordinary-sized tree.
In the case of very tall trees it will, of
course, be necessary to use a ladder ; and, Fig 51 _
although this will make the removal of the Prunii>g book,
shoots a longer and more expensive operation, it
should not on this account be neglected. The pres-
ence of a few shoots, along the upper part of the
trunk of a large tree, does not materially interfere
with its growth ; their proximity to large branches, by
which they are necessarily shaded and overtopped,
checks their growth and prevents any great injury to
the tree. As a general rule, however, all such shoots
developed on the trunk below the branches should be
removed, except from very young trees, insufficiently
supplied with foliage, or when less than one third of
56 TREE PRUNING.
their height is regularly furnished with branches. In
such cases several shoots should be left to supply the
place of branches and to regulate the flow of sap
(Fig. 52).
It is often desirable to make two
operations of lopping these shoots.
Those on the lower portion of the trunk
may be cut during the first half of July;
while those higher up on the tree may
be left until September, to aid the flow
of sap and hasten the healing of the
wounds made in removing those first
cut.
Fig. 62. - Pres- The removal of these shoots is one of
ervation of shoots . . ,
on the stem of a the most important operations connected
with scientinc pruning, and it should be
branches. carefully performed as long as they con-
tinue to appear, that is during two or three or at most
four years if the tree was skilfully pruned at first.
SEASON FOR PRUNING. 57
CHAPTER VI.
SEASON FOR PRUNING. — THE USE OF COAL-TAR.
Season for Pruning. — The most favorable season of
the year for pruning is the autumn, when the days are
still long and pleasant. The sudden and severe frosts,
however, which often occur at this season of the year,
are dangerous, and in some instances have a tendency
to cause decay in freshly made wounds. In winter
the days are too short, and often too stormy, to allow
continuous work of this nature ; while the loss of sap
which occurs when trees are pruned in the spring,
although considerably checked by the use of coal-tar,
is probably rightly considered injurious. The leaves
interfere with pruning during the summer months
when, too, there is danger of the workmen inflict-
ing injury on the growing tender shoots of neigh-
boring trees ; but a tree may be pruned at any season
of the year, and the best time for pruning is that
which is most convenient, and when it can be most
cheaply performed.
All trees, whatever the nature of the soil in which
they grow, may be advantageously and profitably
TEEE PR UN I NO,
pruned, with the exception perhaps of trees growing
on very poor and barren soil. These, as a general rule,
can produce nothing more valuable than fuel, and
hardly justify the cost and labor of pruning.
The Use of Coal-tar. — Coal-tar, a waste product of
gas works, is a dark-brown imperishable substance
with the odor of creosote. It can be applied with an
ordinary painter's-brush, and may be used cold, except
in very cold weather, when it should be slightly
warmed before application. Coal-tar has remarkable
preservative properties, and may be used with equal
advantage on living and dead wood. A single appli-
cation without penetrating deeper than ordinary paint
forms an impervious coating to the wood cells, which
would without such covering, under external influ-
ences, soon become channels of decay. This simple
application then produces a sort of instanta-
neous cauterization, and preserves from decay wounds
caused either in pruning or by accident. The odor of
coal-tar drives away insects, or prevents them, by
complete adherence to the wood, from injuring it.
After long and expensive experiments the director of
the Parks of the City of Paris finally, in 1863, adopted
coal-tar in preference to other preparations used for
covering tree wounds, as may be seen in all the prin-
cipal streets of the capital.
Objections to other Preparations. — Efforts have been
made for a long time to discover some method of
covering the wounds inflicted on trees, either acciden-
tally or by the hands of man. The remedy usually
SEASON FOR PRUNING. 59
recommended from time immemorial is the oint-
ment of St. Fiacre, a mixture of loam and cow
dung. Various preparations, too, used in grafting,
and having rosin, wax, and grease, as their basis, have
at different times been very generally recommended
for this purpose. These preparations are expensive ;
and, as they must be applied hot, it is not prac-
ticable to use them on a large scale. Their use, too,
is attended with serious difficultieSc As the new
growth of wood spreads over the wound, these thick
coatings are either broken or pushed aside bodily, ac-
cording to the power of resistance of the material
used ; and the wood is again exposed and a safe
retreat for injurious insects prepared.
One coat of coal-tar is sufficient for wounds of or-
dinary size ; but, when they are exceptionally large, a
second coat may, after a few years, be well applied.
In warm countries, like the south of France, the great
heat of summer renders coal-tar so liquid that it is
often impossible to properly treat wounds made at
that season. In such cases another coat should be
applied during the following winter.
Effects of Coal-tar on the Elm, — The effect of coal-
tar on the Elm is not always as satisfactory as upon
other forest trees, such as the Oak, Ash, Sycamore,
Birch, Maple, etc. The application of a coat of coal-
tar on all of these gives at once to the wound a hard
firm surface ; on the Elm, however, it does not always
adhere firmly, owing to the formation on the surface
of the wound of the water blisters common to this
60 TREE PRUNING.
tree. In such cases the coal-tar which does not
adhere firmly should be rubbed off and another coat
applied to the wound.
Employment of Coal-tar in protecting Young Plantations
against Animals, — Coal-tar may be used with excellent
effect in protecting young plantations from the at-
tacks of rabbits, and other game, or such domestic
animals as goats and sheep. Satisfactory results have
been obtained too, from the use of coal tar in protect-
ing young trees from horses, which often take special
delight in tearing off the entire bark from certain
kinds of trees, particularly Elms and Poplars. This
is not, however, always a safe or desirable remedy, as-
it necessitates covering a large part of the stem, and
this is often fatal to the tree either by producing
asphyxia, from which trees treated in this manner
are liable to suffer, or, perhaps, by the action of the
powerful acid contained in coal-tar itself, which, used
in large quantities, might perhaps affect the sap.
Employment of Coal-tar on Fruit Trees. — It is for
this reason that the application of coal-tar should not
be made except with considerable caution in the treat-
ment of wounds on drupacious fruit trees (Cherries,
Peaches, Plums, etc.), and especially on the Plum-
tree. It has often been observed that the bark of
fruit trees of this class have suffered from the appli-
cation of coal-tar. This is not the case, however,
with Pome-bearing trees (Apples, Pears, etc.) ; to
these coal-tar may be applied with perfect safety.
It must not be supposed from these remarks that
SEASON FOR PRUNING. 61
coal-tar cannot be used on the Plum, or other trees of
its class. On the contrary, there is no substance which
can replace it in the treatment of large wounds on
these trees ; but it should be used cautiously, espe-
cially in the case of young trees, and should not be
allowed to needlessly run down the trunk ; and it is
well to remember that the more active a reined}^, the
greater the care necessary in its application.
62 TREE PRUNING.
CHAPTER VII.
SOFT WOODS. — POPLARS. -CONIFERS.
Soft Woods, — Woods with little density or strength
are called " soft woods " or " white woods," in dis-
tinction from hard woods, such as oak, elm, ash, etc.
Such woods are easy to work and in great de-
mand for many purposes. The trees yielding wood
of this sort grow often three or four times as rapidly
as hard-wood trees, and are therefore more profitable
to cultivate. To this class belong many trees with
deciduous foliage such as the Poplars, Willows, Lin-
dens, etc., and most conifers. The general rules for
pruning are applicable to trees of this class, and it is
only necessary to say a few words in regard to the
treatment proper for Poplars and Conifers.
Poplars. — The Poplars, owing to their rapid growth
and the excellent quality of the wood yielded by
them, constitute a group of considerable interest. The
growth of these trees is often so rapid that it is prac-
ticable to make, the length of their trunks equal one
third to one half of the entire height of the tree, and
thus greatly increase their value for industrial pur-
SOFT WOODS. 63
poses. The large branches of trees of this family are
very brittle, and are easily broken by wind or ice, and
should be shortened in the manner already explained
for hard -wood trees.
Conifers, — These trees, which are generally grega-
rious and form extensive forests, are valuable subjects
for Sylviculture, on account of the readiness with
which they reproduce themselves from seed, and be-
cause they admirably prepare the soil to produce hard
woods and especially the Oak. Of the two operations
of pruning — the cutting close to the trunk, and the
shortening of branches — the second need not often
be applied to the natural pyramidal form of Firs and
Spruces : for these trees nothing is necessary beyond
removing, when possible, dead or dying branches.
The Pines, however, when not growing under the
conditions peculiar to them, that is crowded together,
often develop enormous branches, which greatly in-
terfere with the beauty and the value of the trunk,
the only portion of the tree possessed of any value.
The rules laid down for shortening the branches of
Oaks and other deciduous trees are, in case of neces-
sity, applicable to Pines ; that is, one third or one half
of the length of the branches may be safely cut away.
It is essential, however, to preserve at the end of the
shortened branches an abundant supply of foliage as
the branch of a coniferous tree deprived of leaves is
more certain to perish than the branch of a deciduous
tree under similar circumstances. A Pine may in this
way be made to assume the natural form it would have
64 TREE PRUNING.
had if grown under normal conditions ; the trunk
lengthens and thickens regularly, giving to the tree
an economic value for many purposes of construction,
and especially for the masts and spars of vessels.
As a Pine grows, the lower branches die and dry up.
The resin with which these are impregnated prevents
their decay ; and these dead branches, embedded in the
new wood form the knots which interfere with the
growth of the tree and produce holes in the boards
and planks cut from it. Such defects can be greatly
diminished by cutting off all .dead or dying brandies
close to the trunk ; while a coat of coal-tar will pre-
vent or reduce the flow of resin from the wound.
The practice of leaving a short stump to an ampu-
tated branch, adopted by some persons to prevent the
loss of sap, although less objectionable in the case of
coniferous trees, should never be
adopted. Such stumps must be
cut again the following year close
to the trunk, or cushions of wood
will form about their base, cover-
ing the trunk with protuberances
(Fig 53). These greatly injure
Fig. 53. - Effect on the the appearance and value of the
Pines of leaving the stump . .
of an amputated branch. tree, and HCCCSSltatC, Should it
be found desirable to remove later such excrescences,
wounds two or three times as large as an original cut
close to the trunk would have made.
The custom of pruning Pines is very general in
France, and is often carried to excess. The removal
SOFT WOODS. 65
of all branches, with the exception of a few at the top
of the tree, must greatly interfere with the growth in
diameter of the trunk ; and healthy branches should
not be removed for the sake of creating a clean trunk
of more than one half or at the most two thirds of
the entire height of the tree. The general rule of
pruning already explained in the case of deciduous
trees, and which establishes a proportion between the
number of branches which should be removed and
the size of the tree, might with advantage be more
generally applied in the treatment of Pines.
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